Appleton-Knapp, S. L., Bjork, R. A., & Wickens, T. D. (2005). Examining the Spacing Effect in Advertising: Encoding Variability, Retrieval Processes, and Their Interaction. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 266-276.
Experiment 1 – AB-AB
Experiment 2 & 4 – Repeated & Varied
Balota, D. A., Duchek, J. J., & Paullin, R. (1989). Age-related difference in the impact of spacing, lag, and retention interval. Psychology and Aging, 4, 3-9.
Young, Old - all retention intervals
Begg, I., & Green, C. (1988). Repetition and trace interaction: Superadditivity. Memory & Cognition, 16, 232-242.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Bellezza, F. S., & Young, D. R. (1989). Chunking of Repeated Events in Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 990-997.
Experiment 3, Additivity Constant “OR”
Burtt, H. E., Dubell, E. M. (1925). The curve of forgetting for advertised material. Journal of Applied Psychology, 9, 5-21.
Early Follow Up
Cermak, L. S., Verfaellie, M., Lanzoni, S. Mather, M., & Chase, K. A. (1996). Effect of Spaced Repetitions on Amnesia Patients' Recall and Recognition Performance. Neuropsychology, 10, 219-227.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Challis, B. H. (1993). Spacing effects on cued-memory tests depend upon level of processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 19, 389-396.
Experiment 2 - Intentional & Incidental
Craik, F. I., & Tulving, E. (1975). Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104, 268-294.
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
DeRemer, P., & D'Agostino, P. R. (1974). Locus of distributed lag effect in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 167-171.
Experiment 1, I-C & C-C
Experiment 2
D’Agostino, P. R., & DeRemer, P. (1973). Repetition Effects as a Function of Rehearsal and Encoding Variability. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 108-113.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
D'Agostino, P. R., & DeRemer, P. (1972). Item repetition in free and cued recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 54-58.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Dellarosa, D., & Bourne, L. E. Jr. (1985). Surface form and the spacing effect. Memory & Cognition, 13, 529-537.
Experiment 1 – Verbatim & Gist Repetitions
Experiment 2 – Same & Different Speaker
Durgunoglu, A. Y., Mir, M., & Arino-Marti, S. (1993). Effects of repeated readings on bilingual and monolingual memory for text. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 294-317.
Experiment 1 – Text Questions
Experiment 4 – Main Idea and Detail Questions, No Interference
Elmes, D. G., Chapman, P. F., & Selig, C. W. (1984). Role of mood and connotation in the spacing effect. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 22, 186-188.
Experiment 1 – Neutral & Affective Words
Elmes, D. G., Dye, C. J., & Herdelin, N. J. (1983). What is the role of affect in the spacing effect? Memory & Cognition, 11, 144-151.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3 – Good and Bad Conditions
Foos, P. W., & Smith, K. H. (1974). Effects of Spacing and Spacing Patterns in Free Recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 103, 112-116.
Experiment 1
Gartman, L. M., & Johnson, N. F. (1972). Massed Versus Distributed Repetition of Homographs: A Test of the Differential-Encoding Hypothesis. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 801-808.
Experiment 2 – “Both Lists”
Experiment 3 - “All Lists”
Glanzer, M. (1969). Distance between Related Words in Free Recall: Trace of the STS. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 105-111.
1 & 3 sec presentation rates
Glanzer, M., & Duarte, A. (1971). Repetition Between and Within Languages in Free Recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 10, 625-630.
Between Languages
Glenberg, A. M. (1976). Monotonic and Nonmonotonic Lag Effects in Paired-Associate and Recognition Memory Paradigms. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 15, 1-16.
Experiment 2
Glenburg, A. M., Lehmann, T. S. (1980). Spacing Repetitions over 1 week. Memory & Cognition, 8, 528-538.
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Goldman, S. R., & Pellegrino, J. W. (1977). Processing Domain, Encoding Elaboration, and Memory Trace Strength. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 29-43.
Not used in data – but shows superadditivity for 3 presentations
Greene, R. L. (1989). Spacing effects in memory: Evidence of a two-process account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 15, 371-377.
Experiment 1 – Incidental & Intentional
Experiment 2 – Recognition – Incidental & Intentional
Greene, R. L. (1990). Spacing effects on implicit memory tests. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 16, 1004-1011.
Experiment 2 – Cued Recall
Experiment 3 – Recognition – Incidental & Intentional
Hillary, F. G., Schultheis, M. T., Challis, B. H., Millis, S. R., Carnevale, G. J., Galshi, T., DeLuca, J. (2003). Spacing of Repetitions Improves Learning and Memory After Moderate and Severe TBI. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 49-58.
Delayed & Immediate Conditions
Hintzman, D. L., & Stern, L. D. (1977). Failure to confirm Elmes, Greener, and Wilkenson's finding on the spacing effect. American Journal of Psychology, 90, 489-497.
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Hohn, R. L. (1972). Effects of massed vs. distributed practice and word frequency on young children's free recall (Rep. No. PS005604). Retrieved February 10, 2008, from ERIC database: http://eric.ed.gov/
DP – HF & LF
MP – HF & LF
Ikeda, S., & Morita, A. (2003). Repetition effect caused by repeated words between and within languages. Japanese Psychological Research. 45, 162-172.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Jacoby, L. L. (1978). On Interpreting the Effects of Repetition: Solving a Problem Versus Remembering a Solution. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 17, 649-667.
Experiment 1 – Read Only
Jensen, T. D., & Freund, J. S. (1981). Persistence of the spacing effect in incidental free recall: The effect of external list comparisons and intertask correlations. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 18, 183-186.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Johnston, W. A., Coots, J. H., & Flickinger, R. G. (1972). Controlled Semantic Encoding and the Effect of Repetition Lag on Free Recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 784-788.
Same & Different Biasing
Same & Different Neutral
Johnston, W. A., & Uhl, C. N. (1976). The Contribution of Encoding Effort and Variability to the Spacing Effect on Free Recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 153-160.
Experiment 2 – general results of recall
Kahana, M. J., & Greene, R. L. (1993). Effects of Spacing on Memory for Homogenous Lists. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 159-162.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Kraft, R. N., & Jenkins, J. J. (1981). The lag effect with aurally presented passages. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 17, 132-134.
Experiment 1
Landauer, T. K., & Eldridge, L. (1967). Effect of tests without feedback and presentation-test interval in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75, 290-298.
Picture-Name Set
Character-Name Set
Lee, C. L. (1976). Repetition and acoustic contrast in short-term memory for letter sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 2, 695-704.
Recall of 1 letter from pairs
Madigan, S. A. (1969). Intraserial Repetition and Coding Processes in Free Recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 828-835.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2 – Non-Cued Recall
Marmurek, H. H. C., Holt, P. D., & Coe, K. (1978). Presentation mode and repetition effects in free recall. American Journal of Psychology, 91, 483-490.
Correct Frequency Estimates
Auditory - Same & Different
Visual - Same & Different
Mathews, R. C., & Tulving, E. (1973). Effects of Three Types of Repetition on Cued and Noncued Recall of Words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12, 707-721.
Experiment 1 – Noncued Test
Experiment 2 – Noncued Test
Experiment 3 – Noncued Test
McFarland, C. E., Rhodes, D. D., Frey, T. J. (1979). Semantic-Feature Variability and the Spacing Effect. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 163-172.
Experiment 1 – Same and Different Contexts
Experiment 2 – Same and Different Contexts
Melton, A. W. (1970). The Situation with Respect to the Spacing of Repetitions and Memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 596-606.
Melton & Shulman
Melton & Adams
Nelson, T. O. (1977). Repetition and depth of processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 151-171.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Paivio, A. (1974). Spacing of Repetitions in the Incidental and Intentional Free Recall of Pictures and Words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 497-511.
Experiment 1 & 2
Incidental – Words & Pictures
Intentional – Words & Pictures
Standard – Words & Pictures
Perruchet, P. (1989). The effect of spaced presentations on explicit and implicit memory. The British Journal of Psychology, 80, 113-130.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Peterson, L. R., Saltzman, D., Hillner, K., & Land, V. (1962). Recency and frequency in paired-associate learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 396-403.
Experiment 3
Peterson, L. R., Wampler, R., Kirkpatrick, M., & Saltzman, D. (1963). Effect of Spacing Presentations on Retention of a Paired Associate Over Short Intervals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 206-209.
Experiment 3
Potts, G. R., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1970). Repetitions, blank trials, and the vonRestorff effect in free recall memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 86, 128-130.
Average Conditions
Rea, C. P., & Modigliani, V. (1987). The spacing effect in 4- to 9-year-old children. Memory & Cognition, 15, 436-443.
Experiment 1 – Words & Pictures, all age levels
Robbins, D., & Bray, J. F. (1974). The spacing effect and the A-B, A-C paradigm: Evidence for retroactive facilitation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 103, 420-425.
Experiment 1 – Both conditions
Experiment 2 – Response B
Russo, R., & Mammarella, N. (2002). Spacing effects in recognition memory: When meaning matters. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 14, 49-59.
Experiment 1
Seabrook, F., Brown, G. D., Solity, J. E. (2005). Distributed and Massed Practice: From Laboratory to Classroom. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 107-122.
Experiment 1 – all age levels
Shaughnessy, J. J. (1977). Long-term retention and the spacing effect in free-recall and frequency judgments. American Journal of Psychology, 90, 587-598.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Shaughnessy, J. J. (1976). Persistence of the spacing effect in free recall under varying incidental learning conditions. Memory & Cognition, 4, 369-377.
Experiment 2 – Overall Means
Experiment 3 – Frequency of 2
Shaughnessy, J. J., Zimmerman, J., & Underwood, B. J. (1974). The spacing effect in learning word pairs and components of word pairs. Memory & Cognition, 2, 742-748.
Experiment 1 – Pair Recall, Stimulus Recall, Cued Recall – Distributed only for frequency 2
Singh, S. N., Mishra, S., Dendapudi, N., & Linville, D. (1994). Enhancing memory of television commercial through message spacing. Journal of Marketing Research, 31, 384-392.
Younger and Older Adults
Slamecka, N. J., Barlow, W. (1979). The Role of Semantic and Surface Features in Word Repetition Effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 617-627.
Experiment 1 – Exact Repetition
Stroud, J. B., & Johnson, E. (1941). The temporal position of reviews. Journal of Educational Research, 35, 618-622.
Group 1, 2, 4, 6
Thios, S. J. (1972). Memory for Words in Repeated Sentences. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 789-793.
Same & Similar Conditions
Toppino, T. C. (1993). The spacing effect in preschool children's free recall of pictures and words. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 27-30.
Experiment 1 & 2 – Words & Pictures
Toppino, T. C. (1991). The spacing effect in young children’s free recall: Support for automatic-process explanations. Memory & Cognition, 19, 159-167.
Experiment 1 – 2P Lists
Experiment 2 - 1, 2, & 5 Sec Lists
Toppino, T. C., & Bloom, L. C. (2002). The spacing effect, free recall, and two-process account: A closer look. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 437-444
Experiment 1 – Intentional & Incidental
Experiment 2 – Intentional & Incidental
Toppino, T. C., & DiGeorge, W. (1984). The spacing effect in free recall emerges with development. Memory & Cognition, 12, 118-122.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Underwood, B. J. (1970). A breakdown of the total-time law in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 9, 573-580.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Underwood, B. J. (1969). Some correlate of item repetition in free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 83-94.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Experiment 3
Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Rikers, R. M. J. P., Schmidt, H. G. (2005). Limitations to the Spacing Effect: Demonstration of an Inverted u-Shaped Relationship Between Interrepetition Spacing and Free Recall. Experimental Psychology, 52, 257-263.
Experiment 1 – incidental & intentional
Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2004). Detrimental Influence of Contextual Change on Spacing Effects in Free Recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 796-800.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Watkins, M. J., & Kerkar, S. P. (1985). Recall of Twice-Presented Item Without Recall of Either Presentation: Generic Memory for Events. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 24, 666-678.
Experiment 1 - Uncorrected
Experiment 2
Experiment 3 – Overall Average
Waugh, N. C. (1963). Immediate Memory as a Function of Repetition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 2, 107-112.
1-8 Scrambled – No Info
Wells, J. E., & Kirsner, K. (1974). Repetition between and within modalities in free recall. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2, 395-397.
Auditory & Visual
Wenger, S. K. (1979). The within-list distributed practice effect: More evidence for the inattention hypothesis. American Journal of Psychology, 92, 105-113.
Slow and Fast presentation rates
Wright, J., & Brelsford, J. (1978). Changes in the spacing effect with instructional variables in free recall. The American Journal of Psychology, 91, 631-643.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
Zimmerman, J. (1975). Free recall after self-paced study: A test of the attention explanation of the spacing effect. American Journal of Psychology, 88, 277-291.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2